The Grammaring Guide to English Grammar

with Exercises

Second Edition

By Péter Simon

Contents

Introduction

Acknowledgements

About the author

About the proofreader

Pretest

Chapter 1: Time, tense and aspect

Chapter 2: Modals

Chapter 3: Conditionals and unreal tenses

Chapter 4: Indirect speech

Chapter 5: Passive voice and causative structures

Chapter 6: Non-finite verb forms

Chapter 7: Relative clauses

Chapter 8: Inversion

Chapter 9: Articles

Chapter 10: Countable and uncountable nouns

Chapter 11: The subjunctive

Appendix

List of quotes

List of exercises

Glossary

Symbols used in this book

Bibliography

Copyright

Afterword

Introduction

What is this book and who is it for?

The Grammaring Guide to English Grammar by Péter Simon is a resource book on the grammar of Standard British English. It is intended for intermediate to advanced students of English as a second or foreign language who have already studied the basic grammar of English. It covers the most important areas of English grammar and concentrates on structures which may cause difficulty at an intermediate level or above.

How the book is organised

The book starts with a pretest that helps you identify the areas you need to work on. The pretest is followed by eleven chapters, broken down to a number of subchapters that each deal with a specific grammar point. The related explanations are accompanied by real-life sample sentences, timeline diagrams, tables, and quotes. If a similar point or the same point is discussed in a different part of the book, you will find cross-references to that point. Where appropriate, chapters begin with guiding questions and end with revision questions. Most of the chapters are followed by exercises, including multiple choice, sentence transformation, error correction, gap filling and matching exercises, as well as communicative tasks that can be done in language lessons. At the end of the book, there is an appendix which contains a list of the most common irregular verb forms and the most important spelling rules; a list of the quotes that appear in the book; and a glossary that defines grammatical terms frequently used in the explanations.

How to use this book

The chapters in this book are not arranged in order of difficulty. This way, the book can be used for quick reference on specific points of interest, as well as for systematic study, either as a self-study grammar book or as additional material in an ESL/EFL course. No matter which way you use the book, it is recommended that you follow the cross-references, which will lead you to further information on a given item. The exercises, which come with suggested answers, are best done using pen and paper. These exercises will not only help you to practise grammar but also to tie grammatical forms to real-world meaning.

What is "grammaring"?

When I decided to create a website based on the first version of this book, I wanted to find a unique domain name that would make it different from the hundreds of other grammar sites. In a moment of inspiration, the word "grammaring" occurred to me. At that time, I thought it was a non-existent term: a play on the noun "grammar" used as a verb. I felt the -ing form would reflect the idea that grammar should not merely be considered as a field of study but rather as an activity in which language learners are dynamically engaged. Thus, in 2009, I launched www.grammaring.com.

It was not until a few years later that, while browsing the Internet, I learned that "grammaring" was actually an existing term coined by Diane Larsen-Freeman well before my discovery. In her Teaching Language from Grammar to Grammaring, she defines it as the fifth skill (besides reading, writing, speaking and listening), something more than just an area of knowledge: "the ability to use grammar structures accurately, meaningfully and appropriately".

Although I did not have this exact definition in mind when I chose the domain name for the site, I thought it was very close to my understanding of grammar and so I decided to keep the name and later adopt it for the title of this book.

Acknowledgements

I started writing the first version of this book while I was teaching English grammar to English teacher trainees at the Juhász Gyula Teacher Training Faculty of the University of Szeged in Szeged, Hungary. I would like to thank all my students who have studied from this book since then for their useful feedback on the material. I am also grateful to my colleagues for their help and encouragement.

Special thanks go to my colleague Tibor Borbás, who worked with me in the initial stage of the project and contributed greatly to the first version of the text.

Finally, I would also like to thank the proofreader Thomas A. Williams for his meticulous corrections and helpful advice.

About the author

Péter Simon is a teacher of English as a foreign language and the creator of www.grammaring.com. He has been involved in the training of EFL teachers at the University of Szeged in Hungary, where he has offered various courses ranging from General English to English Grammar, Phonetics, Listening Skills, Reading Skills and Presentation Skills to FCE and CPE Exam Preparation. He has also taught Business English, Medical English and English for IT to students in a variety of professional training courses and has been an ERASMUS guest lecturer in Hamar (Norway), Istanbul (Turkey) and Klagenfurt (Austria). He is the co-author of International Business Communication, an online module in Business English developed at the University of Szeged. He is a certified TELC examiner in English, LCCI examiner in Business English, and City & Guilds interlocutor in English.

About the proofreader

Thomas A. Williams is an instructor at the Department of English Language Teacher Education and Applied Linguistics of the University of Szeged in Hungary, where he has taught courses in grammar and the four language skills as well as in translation, English for Academic Purposes, Academic Writing and Business English. His areas of interest include the link between culture(s) and language teaching and learning, task-based language teaching and learning, researching speaking and postmethod pedagogies. He has also seen an English test prep book and other writings of his in print.

Pretest

The following test contains 50 multiple choice questions related to various fields of English grammar covered in this book. For each question, choose the best answer from the three choices listed and note it down for yourself. The questions get harder as you progress, from beginner to advanced level. Don't worry if you don't know all the answers. At the end of the test you will find an answer key that also provides links to the chapters that will explain each answer for you.

Mary is ... teacher.

1. -

2. a

3. an

... go for a walk?

1. Would you like to

2. Would you like

3. Do you like

I ... in the morning.

1. drink a cup of tea usually

2. drink usually a cup of tea

3. usually drink a cup of tea

My sister ... in Canada.

1. live

2. lives

3. living

Where ...

1. does Peter work?

2. Peter does work?

3. works Peter?

I don't have ... problems.

1. some

2. any

3. much

I like ... early in summer.

1. get up

2. getting up

3. to getting up

Tom can ... the piano.

1. play

2. to play

3. plays

Come on, I ... you with those bags.

1. 'm going to help

2. 'll help

3. 'm helping

I ... for you all day yesterday.

1. looking

2. was looking

3. have been looking

Let's take an umbrella. ...

1. It rained.

2. It rains.

3. It's raining.

Sorry, I can't meet you tonight. I ... out with some friends.

1. am going

2. go

3. will go

When I ... home, I ... to bed straight away.

1. was getting / went

2. got / went

3. got / had gone

Last week, I stayed with my sister ... a few days.

1. during

2. since

3. for

I ... on the computer all day. My eyes are sore.

1. been working

2. was working

3. have been working

If I ... in New York at that time, I ... to the show.

1. were living / would go

2. had been living / would have gone

3. lived / would have gone

Tim should spend ... time on the computer.

1. less

2. fewer

3. a few

He wanted to know ...

1. who I was waiting for.

2. who was I waiting for.

3. for who I was waiting.

The question was ... to answer.

1. enough difficult

2. too difficult

3. difficulty

There is something you want to say, ...

1. isn't there?

2. isn't it?

3. doesn't it?

I really ... give up smoking.

1. need

2. must

3. ought

When I met Philip in 1980, he said he ... to Brunei.

1. had never been

2. has never been

3. never been

The wind was blowing through the ... living room window.

1. breaking

2. broken

3. broke

I regret to inform you that your application ...

1. has been rejected.

2. has rejected.

3. rejected.

What's the last film ... you saw?

1. what

2. who

3. that

Have you ever ... China?

1. been in

2. been to

3. gone to

Who ... to?

1. belongs this bag

2. this bag belongs

3. does this bag belong

... a lot of cheese.

1. French eat

2. The French eat

3. The French eats

I wish ... nearer. Then we could meet more often.

1. living

2. I would live

3. I lived

I'll never forget ... her for the first time.

1. to have met

2. to meet

3. meeting

The guide ... visiting the Royal Palace.

1. suggested

2. agreed

3. promised

J. K. Rowling is rumoured ... a new book.

1. that she is writing

2. to be writing

3. writing

Smokers are more likely ... lung cancer compared to non-smokers.

1. to develop

2. that they develop

3. developing

Here ...

1. the postman comes.

2. comes she.

3. comes the bus.

It ... have been Carla you saw this morning. She is away on holiday.

1. mustn't

2. can't

3. needn't

... as compensation.

1. $500 was paid the customer

2. The customer was paid for $500

3. The customer was paid $500

The student apologised ... the professor ... being late.

1. to / for

2. to / of

3. for / of

We haven't heard from him for ten years. He ...

1. had to die.

2. should have died.

3. might have died.

... this morning.

1. My hair had cut

2. I had cut my hair

3. I had my hair cut

By next week, they ... painting the rooms.

1. have finished

2. will finish

3. will have finished

It's high time I ... a new pair of jeans.

1. buy

2. bought

3. had bought

I took the phone back to the shop, but they ... me a replacement.

1. wouldn't give

2. shouldn't give

3. can't have given

Mike insisted ... his new muffin recipe.

1. trying

2. on that I try

3. that I should try

Mr Jones ... at the meeting, but he had to cancel because of his illness.

1. was speaking

2. was to speak

3. was to have spoken

Knowing a little Russian, I had no difficulty ... myself understood.

1. to make

2. making

3. about making

If you ... smarter, you ... money in the first place.

1. were / wouldn't have borrowed

2. were / didn't borrow

3. are / wouldn't borrow

Not only ... the speed limit, but he had also consumed alcohol.

1. he exceeded

2. did he exceed

3. he did exceed

If only it ... snowing.

1. would stop

2. stopped

3. stops

You ... that again.

1. not do

2. are not do

3. are not to do

Where would you rather ...

1. I'll sleep?

2. I'd sleep?

3. I slept?

Answer key

Mary is ... teacher. (2) a (See Articles)

... go for a walk? (1) Would you like to (See Non-finite verb forms)

I ... in the morning. (3) usually drink a tea (See Present simple)

My sister ... in Canada. (2) lives (See Present simple)

Where ... (1) does Peter work? (See Present simple)

I don't have ... problems. (2) any (See Countable and uncountable nouns)

I like ... early in summer. (2) getting up (See Non-finite verb forms)

Tom can ... the piano. (1) play (See Modals)

Come on, I ... you with those bags. (2) 'll help (See Future time)

I ... for you all day yesterday. (2) was looking (See Past continuous, Present perfect continuous)

Let's take an umbrella. ... (3) It's raining. (See Past simple, Present simple, Present continuous)

Sorry, I can't meet you tonight. I ... out with some friends. (1) am going (See Future time)

When I ... home, I ... to bed straight away. (2) got / went (See Past time)

Last week, I stayed with my sister ... a few days. (3) for (See Past simple)

I ... on the computer all day. My eyes are sore. (3) have been working (See Past continuous, Present perfect continuous)

If I ... in New York at that time, I ... to the show. (2) had been living / would have gone (See Conditionals)

Tim should spend ... time on the computer. (1) less (See Countable and uncountable nouns)

He wanted to know ... (1) who I was waiting for. (See Indirect speech)

The question was ... to answer. (2) too difficult (See The use of the infinitive)

There is something you want to say, ... (1) isn't there? (See Subject-auxiliary inversion)

I really ... give up smoking. (2) must (See Modals)

When I met Philip in 1980, he said he ... to Brunei. (1) had never been (See Indirect speech)

The wind was blowing through the ... living room window. (2) broken (See The use of the participle)

I regret to inform you that your application ... (1) has been rejected. (See Passive voice)

What's the last film ... you saw? (3) that (See Relative clauses)

Have you ever ... China? (2) been to (See Present perfect)

Who ... to? (3) does this bag belong (See Present simple)

... a lot of cheese. (2) The French eat (See The definite article (THE))

I wish ... nearer. Then we could meet more often. (3) I lived (See Conditionals and unreal tenses)

I'll never forget ... her for the first time. (3) meeting (See Verbs followed by the TO-infinitive or gerund)

The guide ... visiting the Royal Palace. (1) suggested (See Common reporting verbs, The use of the gerund)

J. K. Rowling is rumoured ... a new book. (2) to be writing (See Passive voice with reporting verbs)

Smokers are more likely ... lung cancer compared to non-smokers. (1) to develop (See Other modal expressions)

Here ... (3) comes the bus. (See Subject-verb inversion)

It ... have been Carla you saw this morning. She is away on holiday. (2) can't (See Categories of meaning expressed by modals)

... as compensation. (3) The customer was paid $500 (See Passive voice)

The student apologised ... the professor ... being late. (1) to / for (See Common reporting verbs, The use of the gerund)

We haven't heard from him for ten years. He ... (3) might have died. (See Categories of meaning expressed by modals)

... this morning. (3) I had my hair cut (See Causative structures)

By next week, they ... painting the rooms. (3) will have finished (See Future time)

It's high time I ... a new pair of jeans. (2) bought (See Conditionals and unreal tenses)

I took the phone back to the shop, but they ... me a replacement. (1) wouldn't give (See Categories of meaning expressed by modals)

Mike insisted ... his new muffin recipe. (3) that I should try (See Common reporting verbs, The use of the gerund)

Mr Jones ... at the meeting, but he had to cancel because of his illness. (3) was to have spoken (See Other modal expressions)

Knowing a little Russian, I had no difficulty ... myself understood. (2) making (See The use of the participle)

If you ... smarter, you ... money in the first place. (1) were / wouldn't have borrowed (See Conditionals)

Not only ... the speed limit, but he had also consumed alcohol. (2) did he exceed (See Subject-auxiliary inversion)

If only it ... snowing. (1) would stop (See Conditionals and unreal tenses)

You ... that again. (3) are not to do (See Other modal expressions)

Where would you rather ... (3) I slept? (See Conditionals and unreal tenses)

Chapter 1: Time, tense and aspect

- Guiding questions: time, tense and aspect

- The difference between times and tenses

- Aspects

- State verbs and action verbs

- Past time

- Present time

- Future time

- Tenses in indirect speech

Guiding questions: time, tense and aspect

- How many tenses are there in English?

- How many aspects are there in English?

- Can a present tense refer to past or future time?

- What kind of verbs can not be used in continuous tenses?

The difference between times and tenses

Time is a concept which is related to our perception of reality. There are three times: past, present and future. Tense is a grammatical category which is marked by verb inflection and expresses when an event or action happens in the flow of time.

Strictly speaking, only two English tenses are marked by the inflection of the verb:

- past (talked)

- present (talks)

Other tenses are marked by auxiliaries (be, have):

- past continuous (was/were talking)

- past perfect (had talked)

- past perfect continuous (had been talking)

- present continuous (am/are/is talking)

- present perfect (have/has talked)

- present perfect continuous (have/has been talking)

As future time is expressed with the modal will + infinitive and not with inflection, the forms with will (will talk, will be talking, will have talked, will have been talking) are not considered to be tenses. However, for the sake of convenience, we refer to them as such throughout this book.

Therefore, the twelve basic tenses in English are:

Past

Present

Future

Simple

Past simple

Present simple

Future simple

Continuous

Past continuous

Present continuous

Future continuous

Perfect

Past perfect

Present perfect

Future perfect

Perfect continuous

Past perfect continuous

Present perfect continuous

Future perfect continuous

Note that certain tenses in English may refer to a different time than that expressed by their names. For example, the present continuous tense may refer to either present or future time:

"What are you doing?" "I'm reading." (present reference)

"What are you doing on Wednesday evening?" "I'm visiting my grandma." (future reference)

Aspects

The aspect of a verb does not indicate when an action takes place in time; it rather shows the relationship between the action and the passage of time as seen from the speaker's point of view.

There are two aspects in English: the continuous (also called the progressive) aspect expresses duration; the perfect aspect expresses completion. The combination of these two aspects makes the perfect continuous.

- The continuous aspect

- The perfect aspect

- The perfect continuous aspect

The continuous aspect

be + present participle (verb-ing)

The continuous aspect is expressed with the auxiliary be and the present participle -ing form of the verb. Depending on the time of the action, we use the past (was, were), present (am, are, is) or modal + infinitive (e.g. will be) form of be.

The continuous aspect focuses on the duration of an event. It expresses that the action was, is or will be in progress at a specific point in time or over a period of time. The point in time may be defined by a time expression (now, at 5 o'clock yesterday, this time tomorrow) or a clause (when I came home, when I come home). For the period of time, we can also use a time expression (all day yesterday) or a clause (while she was reading).

Examples of the continuous aspect:

Are you enjoying yourself? (now)

At 9 o'clock, I was sitting on the train.

When I came home, he was sleeping.

She must be waiting for me. (now)

Rob was hiking all day yesterday.

While she was reading, Bill was working on the computer.

In January, I'll be living at my brother's.

Quotes:

- Success usually comes to those who are too busy to be looking for it. - Henry David Thoreau

- We are all in the gutter, but some of us are looking at the stars. - Oscar Wilde

Related topics:

- The present participle used to form the continuous aspect

- Past continuous

- Present continuous

- Future continuous

- The forms of the infinitive

- The forms of the participle

The perfect aspect

have + past participle

The perfect aspect is expressed with the auxiliary have and the past participle form of the verb. Depending on the time of the action, we use one of the following forms of have: the past (had), present (have, has), modal + infinitive (e.g. will have) or -ing (having).

The perfect aspect focuses on the completion of an event. It expresses that the action had, has or will have been completed by a specific point in time. This point in time may be defined by a time expression (by 5 o'clock) or a clause (by the time you get home, when I arrived).

Examples of the perfect aspect:

I've lived here for ten years. (from 10 years ago until now)

By 5 o'clock, he had finished the letter. (at some time before 5 o'clock)

When I arrived, they had already left. (at some time before I arrived)

Have you seen my new bike? (at any time up to now)

I will have done the ironing by the time you get home. (between now and when you get home)

He might have missed the train. (at some time before now)

Having taken the wrong turn, he ended up in a dangerous neighbourhood. (he turned before he found himself in a dangerous neighbourhood)

Quotes:

- I have not failed. I've just found 10,000 ways that won't work. - Thomas Edison

Related topics:

- The past participle used to form the perfect aspect

- Past perfect

- Present perfect

- Future perfect

- The forms of the infinitive

- The forms of the gerund

- The forms of the participle

The perfect continuous aspect

have + been + verb-ing

The perfect continuous is not considered as an aspect in itself; it is rather the combination of the perfect and continuous aspects.

It is expressed with the auxiliaries have and been (the third form of be) and the (present participle) -ing form of the verb. Depending on the time of the action, we use one of the following forms of have: the past (had), present (have, has) or modal + infinitive (e.g. will have).

The perfect continuous expresses that the action had, has or will have been in progress for some time at a specific point in time. This point in time may be defined by a time expression (at 5 o'clock) or a clause (when she gets home).

Examples of the perfect continuous:

I've been waiting for this moment all my life. (from when I was born until now)

He's been ironing his shirts. (from some time in the past until now)

By 2005, George had been living in Scotland for 20 years. (from 1985 to 2005)

When Mary gets home, Kevin will have been sleeping for hours. (Kevin's sleep lasting from some point in time before Mary gets home until she gets home)

I wouldn't have been sitting there if I hadn't had to. (from some time in the past until a later time in the past)

Related topics:

- The present participle used to form the continuous aspect

- Past perfect continuous

- Present perfect continuous

- Future perfect continuous

- The forms of the infinitive

- The forms of the participle

State verbs and action verbs

State verbs

State verbs express states or conditions which are relatively static. They include verbs of perception, cognition, the senses, emotion and state of being.

Examples of state verbs:

appear, believe, belong, consider, consist, contain, cost, doubt, exist, fit, hate, hear, have, know, like, love, matter, mean, need, owe, own, prefer, remember, resemble, seem, suppose, suspect, understand, want, wish

State verbs are not normally used in continuous forms:

*I am needing a new phone. / I need a new phone.

*Who is this bag belonging to? / Who does this bag belong to?

*They are seeming tired. / They seem tired.

Action verbs

Action verbs (also called dynamic verbs) express activities, processes, momentary actions or physical conditions.

Examples of action verbs:

ache, arrive, ask, call, change, cook, dance, eat, fall, feel, go, grow, have, help, hit, hurt, itch, kick, knock, leave, melt, read, say, shrink, sing, speak, talk, throw, travel, watch

Action verbs may be used in continuous forms:

Who was he dancing with?

Someone's knocking at the door.

I've been reading this book for weeks.

State verbs in the continuous form

Some state verbs may be used in the continuous form if they refer to a temporary action or an action in progress at a certain moment, rather than a permanent attitude:

I'm having second thoughts about moving abroad.

Jones is appearing in Hamlet this evening.

You're looking great in those jeans.

There are also state verbs which may be used in the continuous form, but with a different, active meaning:

Do you have a car? (own)

They are having dinner at the moment. (eating)

You are my best friend. (it's a fact)

She's being silly again. (behaving in a silly way)

That soup smells good. (has a good smell)

He is smelling the soup. (sniffing at)

This milk tastes sour. (has a sour taste)

I was just tasting the food. (testing)

You look great! (your current appearance)

He was looking out the window when I saw him. (directing his eyes towards)

What do you see? (notice with eyes)

I'm seeing my dentist this afternoon. (visiting)

I don't hear well. (pick up with ears)

The judge will be hearing the evidence later this week. (listening to)

I expect that you are tired. (assume)

Are you expecting visitors this evening? (waiting for them to arrive)

I feel that you are wrong. (think)

How have you been feeling? (asking about physical state)

This melon weighs 2 kg. (its weight is 2 kg)

He is weighing the melon. (measuring its weight)

Naturally, we can use the verbs with the active meaning in the simple form, too:

How often do you see your dentist?

They usually have dinner at 6.

But we cannot use the verbs with the stative meaning in the continuous form:

*This melon is weighing 2 kilos.

*The soup was smelling good.

Quotes:

- I don't know the key to success, but the key to failure is trying to please everybody. - Bill Cosby

- If you don't know where you're going, you might never get there. - Yogi Berra

Related topics:

- Modals to express habits: WILL, WOULD, USED TO

- Verbs which cannot be used in the passive voice

- The passive with GET

Past time

- Guiding questions: past time

- Past simple

- Past continuous

- The difference between the past simple and the past continuous

- Past perfect

- The difference between the past simple and the past perfect

- Past perfect continuous

- The difference between the past perfect and the past perfect continuous

- Present simple to express past

- USED TO and WOULD for past habits

- Revision questions: past time

- Exercises: past time

Guiding questions: past time

- How many past tenses are there?

- Which past tense is used to express a point in time at which something happened?

- Does the past perfect tense show how long ago something happened?

- How can you express past habits?

- What is the difference between the past perfect simple and the past perfect continuous tenses?

Past simple

- Form: past simple

- Past simple for completed actions in the past

- Past simple for past habits and states

- Past simple for actions happening over a period of time in the past

- Past simple to express a point in the past

- The auxiliary DID for emphasis

Form: past simple

verb-ed

Affirmative

Subject

Verb (past tense)

I

arrived

yesterday.

You

He/She/It

We

You

They

In the case of regular verbs, the past simple is formed by adding -ed to the base form of the verb for all persons. Note the changes in spelling:

look » looked

stay » stayed

arrive » arrived (we only add -d if the verb ends in -e)

try » tried (a final -y changes to -i- after a consonant)

stop » stopped (we double the final consonant if the verb ends in consonant-vowel-consonant)

A number of verbs have irregular past forms. A few examples are:

buy » bought

fly » flew

hit » hit

shine » shone

swim » swam

See the Appendix for a list of the most common irregular verbs in English.

Negative

In the negative, we use the auxiliary did + not followed by the bare infinitive:

Subject

Auxiliary

not

Verb (bare infinitive)

I

did

not

arrive

in time.

You

He/She/It

We

You

They

The contracted form didn't is often used instead of did not in spoken and in informal written language.

Interrogative

In the interrogative, we use the auxiliary did followed by the subject and the bare infinitive:

(Question word)

Auxiliary

Subject

Verb (bare infinitive)

(When)

did

I

arrive?

you

he/she/it

we

you

they

The verb BE in the past simple

The verb be has irregular past tense forms. In the past simple, the auxiliary did is not used in the negative or interrogative if the main verb is be:

Affirmative

Negative

Interrogative

I was at home.

I was not at home.

Was I at home?

You were at home.

You were not at home.

Were you at home?

He/She/It was at home.

He/She/It was not at home.

Was he/she/it at home?

We were at home.

We were not at home.

Were we at home?

You were at home.

You were not at home.

Were you at home?

They were at home.

They were not at home.

Were they at home?

The contracted forms wasn't and weren't are often used instead of was not and were not in spoken and in informal written language.

Related topics:

- Subject-auxiliary inversion in questions

- The auxiliary DID for emphasis

- Appendix: irregular verb forms

Past simple for completed actions in the past

The past simple tense is used for actions which were completed at a definite point in time in the past. This point can be implied or expressed with a time expression or a clause:

I bought a motorbike last week.

She was born in 1990.

Columbus discovered America. (i.e. in 1492)

How did it happen? (i.e. when it happened)

When I got home, I went to bed straight away.

Examples of time expressions that refer to a definite time in the past:

a year/two months/a few weeks/three days/etc. ago

at 5 o'clock

yesterday

earlier today/this week/this month

last week/month/year

Quotes:

- Millions saw the apple fall, but Newton asked why. - Bernard Baruch

- I had been told that the training procedure with cats was difficult. It's not. Mine had me trained in two days. - Bill Dana

- What you have become is the price you paid to get what you used to want. - Mignon McLaughlin

Past simple for past habits and states

The past simple is used to express habits and states that existed during a period of time in the past. This period can be implied or expressed with a time expression or a clause:

When I was a child, I visited my grandma every weekend. (habit)

When my brother was young, he liked spinach. (state)

Where did you go to primary school? (habit, where the implied period of time is when you went to primary school)

Quotes:

- The fishing was good; it was the catching that was bad. - A. K. Best

- I had been told that the training procedure with cats was difficult. It's not. Mine had me trained in two days. - Bill Dana

Related topics:

- Modals to express habits: WILL, WOULD, USED TO

- Past continuous for frequently repeated actions in the past

- Present simple for present habits and states

Past simple for actions happening over a period of time in the past

The past simple is used for actions that took place over a complete period of time in the past. This period is expressed with a time expression; however, the exact time may or may not be mentioned:

Pterodactyls existed between 1.5 billion and 70 million years ago.

From 1981 to 1984, he worked for a large multinational company.

Last week, I stayed with my sister for a few days. (the exact time is not mentioned)

Joe lived in Boston for ten years. (the exact time is not mentioned)

Related topics:

- Present perfect with FOR and SINCE

Past simple to express a point in the past

The past simple is used to refer to a point in the past at which another event was in progress, had been completed or had been going on for some time. The past simple thus serves as a time marker in subordinate time clauses within complex sentences, where the main clause is in the past continuous, past perfect or past perfect continuous tense:

When I called her, she was studying.

By the time we reached the top, it had stopped raining.

When I got to her house, she had been waiting for hours.

Related topics:

- Past continuous for actions in progress at a specific point in the past

- Past perfect for actions completed before a point in the past

- Present perfect with FOR and SINCE

- IT'S (BEEN) + DAYS / WEEKS / MONTHS / etc. + SINCE

The auxiliary DID for emphasis

In the past simple, the auxiliary did followed by the bare infinitive form of the main verb can be used in affirmative sentences to express emphasis. In speech, the auxiliary is stressed:

I did want to tell you, but I didn't know how.

He did arrive late.

She did go to a school, but she is not nationally certified.

Related topics:

- Form: past simple

- DO, DOES, DID + bare infinitive

Past continuous

- Form: past continuous

- Past continuous for actions in progress at a specific point in the past

- Past continuous for actions happening over a period of time in the past

- Past continuous for gradual development

- Past continuous for frequently repeated actions in the past

- Past continuous for temporary habitual actions in the past

Form: past continuous

was/were + present participle (verb-ing)

The past continuous (also called the past progressive) is formed with was/were (the past tense forms of be) + the present participle -ing form of the verb.

Affirmative

Subject

Auxiliary

Verb (present participle)

I

was

sleeping.

He/She/It

You

were

We

You

They

Negative

Subject

Auxiliary

not

Verb (present participle)

I

was

not

sleeping.

He/She/It

You

were

We

You

They

The contracted forms wasn't and weren't are often used instead of was not and were not in spoken and in informal written language.

Interrogative

(Question word)

Auxiliary

Subject

Verb (present participle)

(Where)

was

I

sleeping?

he/she/it

were

you

we

you

they

Related topics:

- The forms of the participle

- Subject-auxiliary inversion in questions

Past continuous for actions in progress at a specific point in the past

The past continuous tense is used to refer to actions that were in progress at or around a specific point in time in the past. This point can be implied or expressed with a time expression or a clause with a verb in the past simple tense:

At 9 o'clock, I was sitting on the train.

A few minutes ago, they were still dancing.

When I called her, she was studying.

What were you doing when you heard the explosion?

Sorry, can you repeat that? I wasn't listening. (when you said that)

Related topics:

- Present continuous for actions in progress at the time of speaking

- Future continuous for actions in progress at a specific point in the future

- Past simple to express a point in the past

Past continuous for actions happening over a period of time in the past

The past continuous is used to describe actions which continued over a period of time in the past. This period can be expressed with a time expression or a clause with a verb in the past continuous tense. In this case the two actions were happening simultaneously:

I was looking for you all day yesterday.

He was staying in Rome that summer.

Were you sleeping during the speech?

My friends were enjoying themselves playing cards while I was studying in my room.

Related topics:

- Future continuous for actions happening over a period of time in the future

Past continuous for gradual development

Used without a time expression, the past continuous can express change and gradual development in the past:

It was getting darker and darker.

Our hopes were fading.

Related topics:

- Present continuous for gradual development

Past continuous for frequently repeated actions in the past

With time expressions such as always, constantly, continually and all the time, the past continuous can express frequently repeated past actions which annoy(ed) the speaker:

She was always teasing me.

They were constantly arguing about money.

He was continually interrupting the speaker.

I was getting into trouble all the time.

He was always calling me at night to ask me how I was.

These sentences imply that the actions happened very often, but they are not meant literally. To express the literal meaning, the past simple is used:

He always called me at night to ask me how I was. (He called me every night to ask me how I was.)

Related topics:

- Present continuous for frequently repeated actions in the present

- Past simple for past habits and states

Past continuous for temporary habitual actions in the past

The past continuous is used to express repeated or habitual actions in the past that were temporary:

At that time, she was meeting him twice a week.

When I lived in London, I was getting up at 5 am to be able to get to work by 6.

Related topics:

- Present continuous for temporary habitual actions in the present

- Future continuous for temporary habitual actions in the future

The difference between the past simple and the past continuous

Main events and background events in a story

In a story which is told in the past tense, the main events (the ones that happen in the foreground and carry the story forward) are expressed with the past simple, while the past continuous is used for background events:

Ten people were sitting around the table. It was raining outside. Suddenly, the door opened and a woman entered the room. She was wearing a black dress. Everyone stared at, her but she didn't say anything. She slowly went to the table and put an envelope on it. They were just staring at her as she left the room.

Note the difference between these two sentences from the story:

Everyone stared at her.

They were just staring at her.

The past simple in the first sentence expresses a momentary, completed action, whereas the past continuous in the second sentence expresses an action in progress.

Here is another example for the same contrast:

I went home at 7. (completed action)

At 7, I was going home. (action in progress)

Related topics:

- Past simple for completed actions in the past

- Past continuous for actions in progress at a specific point in the past

Past perfect

- Form: past perfect

- Past perfect for actions completed before a point in the past

- Past perfect with FOR

- Past perfect with superlative forms of adjectives

Form: past perfect

had + past participle

The past perfect is formed with had + the past participle form of the verb.

Affirmative

Subject

Auxiliary

Verb (past participle)

I

had

arrived

by then.

You

He/She/It

We

You

They

The following contracted forms are often used in spoken and in informal written language:

I had » I'd

you had » you'd

he/she/it had » he'd/she'd/it'd

we had » we'd

you had » you'd

they had » they'd

Negative

Subject

Auxiliary

not

Verb (past participle)

I

had

not

arrived

by then.

You

He/She/It

We

You

They

The contracted form hadn't is often used instead of had not in spoken and in informal written language.

Interrogative

(Question word)

Auxiliary

Subject

Verb (past participle)

(How)

had

I

arrived

by then?

you

he/she/it

we

you

they

Related topics:

- The forms of the participle

- Subject-auxiliary inversion in questions

- Appendix: irregular verb forms

Past perfect for actions completed before a point in the past

The past perfect tense is used to express that an action was completed before a point in time in the past. This point can be implied or expressed with a time expression or a clause with a verb in the past simple tense:

They had all arrived by 10 o'clock.

When he tried to stand up, he realised he had broken his ankle.

Contrary to a common misunderstanding, the past perfect does not express that something happened a very long time ago. What it expresses is not how long ago an event happened but rather that it happened earlier than something else:

Julius Caesar attacked Britain in 54 BC. (This was quite a long time ago; still, the past simple tense is used here.)

When I got home, they had already eaten everything in the house. (Maybe this only happened yesterday, but the point is that the eating happened before my arrival.)

Expressions which are often used with the past perfect tense: by, till, until, before, when, by the time, no sooner, hardly, scarcely, barely.

Danny had never seen a real cow till I showed him one last Friday.

He didn't leave until he had talked with the boss.

By the time she got to the theatre, the play had already begun.

I had no sooner got home than the telephone rang.

I had hardly/barely/scarcely fallen asleep when there was an earthquake.

Quotes:

- I had been told that the training procedure with cats was difficult. It's not. Mine had me trained in two days. - Bill Dana

Related topics:

- Present perfect for past events

- Future perfect for actions completed before a point in the future

- HARDLY, SCARCELY, BARELY, NO SOONER

Past perfect with FOR

The preposition for is used with the past perfect tense to express that something started before a point in time in the past and was still true at that point:

When they got married, they had already been together for three years.

Related topics:

- Present perfect with FOR and SINCE

- Future perfect with FOR

Past perfect with superlative forms of adjectives

The past perfect is used with superlative forms of adjectives to express emphasis:

It was the strangest piece of music I had ever heard.

Jill was the most beautiful girl John had ever met.

The second sentence above implies that until that time John had never met such a beautiful girl, but since then perhaps he has. If, however, John hasn't met anybody like Jill since then, the present perfect is used instead of the past perfect:

Jill was the most beautiful girl John has ever met.

Related topics:

- Present perfect with superlative forms of adjectives

The difference between the past simple and the past perfect

When the events of a story are told in the order in which they occurred, the past simple tense is used:

I missed the last bus, so I only got home at about 6 o'clock. I was really tired, so I took a hot bath. Then I made some dinner and watched a film. At 10, I was in bed.

However, if the events are told in a different order or there are references to an earlier time, the past perfect tense is used to express the earlier events:

I only got home at about 6 o'clock because I had missed the last bus. I was really tired, so I took a hot bath. Then I made some dinner and watched a film I had borrowed from my friend Sheila earlier that week. At 10, I was in bed. It had been a long day.

Related topics:

- Past simple for completed actions in the past

- Past perfect for actions completed before a point in the past

Past perfect continuous

- Form: past perfect continuous

- Past perfect continuous for continuous events in the past

- Past perfect continuous for habitual actions in the past

Form: past perfect continuous

had + been + present participle (verb-ing)

The past perfect continuous (also called the past perfect progressive) is formed with had + been (the past participle form of be) + the present participle -ing form of the verb.

Affirmative

Subject

Auxiliary

Verb (present participle)

I

had

been

waiting

for hours.

You

He/She/It

We

You

They

Negative

Subject

Auxiliary 1

not

Auxiliary 2

Verb (present participle)

I

had

not

been

waiting

long.

You

He/She/It

We

You

They

The contracted form hadn't is often used instead of had not in spoken and in informal written language.

Interrogative

(Question word)

Auxiliary 1

Subject

Auxiliary 2

Verb (present participle)

How long

had

I

been

waiting?

you

he/she/it

we

you

they

Related topics:

- The forms of the participle

- Subject-auxiliary inversion in questions

Past perfect continuous for continuous events in the past

The past perfect continuous tense is used to express that an action started before a point in time in the past and that it was still in progress or it had just stopped. This point can be implied or expressed with a time expression or a clause with a verb in the past simple tense:

It had been snowing all night.

By 2005, George had been living in Scotland for 20 years.

When I got to her house, she had been waiting for hours.

Related topics:

- Present perfect continuous with FOR and SINCE

- Present perfect continuous for continuous events that have just finished

- Future perfect continuous for continuous events in the future

Past perfect continuous for habitual actions in the past

The past perfect continuous is used to express repeated or habitual actions happening over a period of time before a point in time in the past:

I had been getting up at five o'clock all week, so on Friday I was completely exhausted.

Related topics:

- Present perfect continuous for habitual actions

The difference between the past perfect and the past perfect continuous

In contrast with the past perfect simple tense, which emphasises the result of a completed action, the past perfect continuous focuses on the duration or the activity itself:

By then, he had eaten all the food. (there was nothing left)

He put down the fork he had been eating with and left the table.

Present simple to express past

Headlines

In news headlines, the present simple tense refers to past time:

WAR CRIMINAL ESCAPES FROM COURTROOM (A war criminal has escaped from a courtroom.)

REAL MADRID WINS AGAINST MANCHESTER UNITED (Real Madrid won against Manchester United yesterday.)

Historical present

The present simple tense is used in narratives for purposes of dramatization to express past events. This use of the present simple is called the historical present.

- Summaries of historical events:

1945: the war in Europe comes to an end.

- Jokes:

Sherlock Holmes and Doctor Watson go camping. In the morning, as they are lying in their sleeping bags, Holmes says, 'Watson, look up at the sky and tell me what you deduce.' So Watson says, 'Well, the sky is salmon pink, so we're going to have a clear day. The moon is just setting, so it must be about 5 am. There are no clouds, so it probably won't rain.' Holmes bursts out, 'Watson, you idiot! Someone has stolen our tent.'

- Plot summaries (real stories, books, films etc.):

So I walk into this shop, and I see this man with a gun in his hand. And like... everybody's looking at him. Then he says...

At the end of the story, Luke becomes a Jedi and defeats Darth Vader.

In such narratives, we use the present simple for main events and the present continuous for background events.

USED TO and WOULD for past habits

This topic is discussed under Modals » Categories of meaning expressed by modals » Modals to express habits: WILL, WOULD, USED TO.

Revision questions: past time

- Which past tense expresses a point in time at which something happened, was happening or had been happening for some time?

- Is the auxiliary did used in affirmative sentences in the simple past?

- Which past tenses can be used to express repeated, habitual actions in the past?

- What is the difference between used to and would with regard to past habits?

- What is the historical present?

Exercises: past time

Past time - Exercise 1

Order the words to make sentences.

1. crying you Why when were met we

2. week was beach This the I sunbathing time last on

3. We finally she waiting had for hour when been an arrived

4. night you dancing all Were long

5. By their kids time finished Jimmy the up the woke other had breakfast

6. like He always didn't because teasing Claire she him was

7. we playing blackout there were cards was a While

8. How when been you living long sold there you had the flat

9. That seen was the violin the children time had a first

10. had got already they When home I left

Past time - Exercise 2

Choose the best answer for each of the following sentences.

1. Julie ... to school last week because she ... ill.

1. hadn't been going / was

2. didn't go / was

3. didn't go / had been

2. I ... around to see what ... .

1. looked / was going on

2. looked / went on

3. had looked / went on

3. He ... on the motorway when he ... a puncture.

1. had been driving / had

2. was driving / had

3. drove / was having

4. What comics ... when you were young?

1. did you read

2. had you read

3. had you been reading

5. We ... why Peter ... a white shirt and a tie.

1. weren't understanding / wore

2. didn't understand / worn

3. didn't understand / was wearing

6. How long ... together when their first child was born?

1. were they

2. had they been

3. did they use to be

7. After I paid, I ... that I ... to buy cheese.

1. remembered / forgot

2. remembered / had forgotten

3. had remembered / had forgotten

8. People ... eat so many carbohydrates before.

1. didn't use to

2. didn't used to

3. wasn't used to

9. By the time the concert ... , the fans ... impatiently for almost two hours.

1. had begun / had queued

2. began / had been queueing

3. began / were queueing

10. Sally ... for her mid-term all day yesterday.

1. had been revising

2. was revising

3. used to revise

Past time - Exercise 3

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