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Glossary

a
action

A general term expressing that somebody or something does something

See also: event, state
adjective

A part of speech that modifies, qualifies or restricts a nounA part of speech that names a person, place or thing. E.g.: The koala is a marsupial. ("koala", "marsupial") or a pronounA part of speech that refers to or stands instead of a noun. E.g.: Who do you think I am? ("you", "I"). E.g.: The apples are ripe. ("ripe")

See also: conjunction, noun, pronoun, verb
adverb

A part of speech that modifies verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis.s, adjectiveA part of speech that modifies, qualifies or restricts a noun or a pronoun. E.g.: The apples are ripe. ("ripe")s, adverbA part of speech that modifies verbs, adjectives, adverbs and conjunctions. E.g.: I could hardly utter a word. ("hardly")s and conjunctionA part of speech connecting words, clauses or sentences. E.g.: Although everyone but Julie heard the news, no one seemed to care. ("although", "but")s.
E.g.: I could hardly utter a word. ("hardly")

See also: noun, pronoun
affirmative sentence

A declarativeThe sentence type used to make statements; it can be an affirmative sentence or a negative sentence. E.g.: John likes squash a lot. Tim has no friends. sentence indicating "yes"; also called a positive sentence.
E.g.: John likes squash a lot.

See also: negative sentence Synonyms: affirmative
agent

The doer of an actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something; the person or the thing that does something.
E.g.: True Romance was written by Tarantino. ("Tarantino")

See also: instrument
article

Any of the words "a", "an" and "the", used to limit or give definiteRelating to a specific or determined person, thing, idea or time. E.g.: I know the guy you are talking about. ("the guy you are talking about")ness to a nounA part of speech that names a person, place or thing. E.g.: The koala is a marsupial. ("koala", "marsupial"). "A" and "an" are indefiniteNot relating to a specific or determined person, thing, idea or time. E.g.: Somebody left you a message. ("somebody", "a message") articleAny of the words "a", "an" and "the", used to limit or give definiteness to a noun. "A" and "an" are indefinite articles, while "the" is a definite article. E.g.: A man was standing on the platform. ("a", "the")s, while "the" is a definite article.
E.g.: A man was standing on the platform. ("a", "the")

aspect

A verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis.al category relating an actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something to the passage of timeA concept which is related to our perception of reality; that part of existence which is measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, etc.. It can express durationA concept, related to the continuous aspect, expressing that an action is in progress. E.g.: What are you doing? or completionA concept, related to the perfect aspect, expressing that an action has finished. E.g.: He’s finished university..

auxiliary verb

A helping verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis. used with main verbA verb that can express an action or state in itself. E.g.: John likes squash a lot. ("like")s to express mood, voiceThe form of the transitive verb that shows whether the subject acts (active voice) or is acted upon (passive voice). and tenseA grammatical category that is marked by verb inflection. To express when an event or action happens in time or when a state exists, we use tenses..
E.g.: I can't stand when I am disturbed. ("can", "am")

See also: main verb Synonyms: auxiliaries, auxiliary
c
clause

A group of related words containing a subjectThe person or thing that performs the action of a verb or that is described by a verb. E.g.: Andy has never been to Brunei. ("Andy") and a verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis..

See also: main clause, subordinate clause
complete period of time

A period of timeThe length of time between two points of time. that has finished and does not include the time of speakingA point of time at which an utterance is made..
E.g.: Geoffrey didn’t go skiing last year. ("last year")

See also: incomplete period of time, period of time
completion

A concept, related to the perfectThe aspect expressing completion. E.g.: He’s finished university. aspectA verbal category relating an action to the passage of time. It can express duration or completion., expressing that an actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something has finished.
E.g.: He’s finished university.

See also: duration Synonyms: complete, completed
conjunction

A part of speech connecting words, clauseA group of related words containing a subject and a verb.s or sentences.
E.g.: Although everyone but Julie heard the news, no one seemed to care. ("although", "but")

See also: adjective, noun, pronoun, verb Synonyms: linking word
context

The situation within which something exists or happens, or an utteranceSomething that somebody says in a specific context. is made.

continuous aspect

The aspectA verbal category relating an action to the passage of time. It can express duration or completion. expressing durationA concept, related to the continuous aspect, expressing that an action is in progress. E.g.: What are you doing? , formed with be + verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis.-ing.
E.g.: What are you doing?

See also: perfect aspect Synonyms: continuous
d
declarative sentence

The sentence type used to make stateA condition that exists at a particular time. E.g.: I am sick. This melon weighs two kilos. ments; it can be an affirmativeA declarative sentence indicating "yes"; also called a positive sentence. E.g.: John likes squash a lot. sentence or a negativeA declarative sentence indicating "no". E.g.: Tim has no friends. sentence.
E.g.: John likes squash a lot.
Tim has no friends.

See also: imperative sentence, interrogative sentence Synonyms: declarative
definite

Relating to a specific or determined person, thing, idea or timeA concept which is related to our perception of reality; that part of existence which is measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, etc..
E.g.: I know the guy you are talking about. ("the guy you are talking about")

See also: indefinite
direct object

The directly affected objectA person or thing that is affected by the action of a verb or involved in the result of an action. of the verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis.; the receiver of the actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something.
E.g.: Who has taken a piece of my bread? ("a piece of my bread")

See also: ditransitive verb, indirect object, intransitive verb, object, transitive verb
ditransitive verb

A verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis. that has two objectA person or thing that is affected by the action of a verb or involved in the result of an action.s: a direct objectThe directly affected object of the verb; the receiver of the action. E.g.: Who has taken a piece of my bread? ("a piece of my bread") and an indirect objectTo or for whom or what the action of the verb takes place. E.g.: I have bought these flowers for you. ("you").
E.g.: She showed me her room. ("showed")

See also: direct object, indirect object, intransitive verb, object, transitive verb
duration

A concept, related to the continuousThe aspect expressing duration, formed with be + verb-ing. E.g.: What are you doing? aspectA verbal category relating an action to the passage of time. It can express duration or completion., expressing that an actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something is in progressAn action is in progress when it is happening. E.g.: When I arrived he was surfing. ("he was surfing").
E.g.: What are you doing?

See also: completion
e
emphasis

Special importance or attention given to something.
E.g.: All I wanna do is have some fun.

See also: focus Synonyms: emphatic
event

A general term expressing that somebody or something does something or that something happens.
E.g.: An apple fell on Isaac’s head.

See also: action, state
expression

A word or group of words used in a particular situation.
E.g.: Good morning, at six, on the sofa

See also: structure
f
focus

The main or central point of attention or interest; what is emphasized.
E.g.: All I wanna do is have some fun. ("all")

See also: emphasis
formal

Not belonging to colloquial or everyday speech; official. E.g.: I demand that Mr Smith call the person on whom the committee has decided.

See also: informal
h
hypothetical

UnrealA tense that expresses a hypothetical situation. E.g.: I wish you were here., imagined.

See also: unreal tense
i
imperative sentence

The sentence type used to express suggestions, directions or orders. E.g.: Clean your shoes, will you?

See also: declarative sentence, interrogative sentence Synonyms: imperative
incomplete period of time

A period of timeThe length of time between two points of time. that includes the time of speakingA point of time at which an utterance is made.. E.g.: I have known him for two years. ("for two years")

See also: complete period of time, period of time
indefinite

Not relating to a specific or determined person, thing, idea or timeA concept which is related to our perception of reality; that part of existence which is measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, etc.. E.g.: Somebody left you a message. ("somebody", "a message")

See also: definite
indirect object

To or for whom or what the actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something of the verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis. takes place. E.g.: I have bought these flowers for you. ("you")

See also: direct object, ditransitive verb, intransitive verb, object, transitive verb
inflection

A change in or addition to the form of a word that shows a change in the way it is used in sentences.
E.g.: He likes what you cooked. ("-s", "-ed")

See also: tense
informal

Belonging to colloquial or everyday speech E.g.: I want Mr Smith to call the guy that the committee has decided on.

See also: formal
instrument

Something that the doer uses in performing the actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something. E.g.: She covered the child with a blanket. ("a blanket")

See also: agent, voice
interrogative sentence

The sentence type used to express a direct question. E.g.: What are you doing?

See also: declarative sentence, imperative sentence, question word, wh-question, yes/no question Synonyms: interrogative
intransitive verb

A verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis. that does not have a direct objectThe directly affected object of the verb; the receiver of the action. E.g.: Who has taken a piece of my bread? ("a piece of my bread"). E.g.: How long have you been living here? ("live")

See also: direct object, ditransitive verb, indirect object, object, transitive verb
inversion

A structureThe way in which the parts of a sentence, clause or expression are arranged. E.g.: make somebody + infinitive in "The teacher made me rewrite the composition." in which a verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis. or an auxiliaryA helping verb used with main verbs to express mood, voice and tense. E.g.: I can't stand when I am disturbed. ("can", "am") precedes the subjectThe person or thing that performs the action of a verb or that is described by a verb. E.g.: Andy has never been to Brunei. ("Andy"). E.g.: "Here comes the sun."

Synonyms: invert, inverted
m
main clause

A clauseA group of related words containing a subject and a verb. that could be a sentence in itself. E.g.: I wouldn’t go there if I were you. ("I wouldn't go there") When I arrived he was surfing. ("he was surfing")

See also: clause, subordinate clause
main verb

A verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis. that can express an actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something or stateA condition that exists at a particular time. E.g.: I am sick. This melon weighs two kilos. in itself. E.g.: John likes squash a lot. ("like")

See also: auxiliary verb
n
negative sentence

A declarativeThe sentence type used to make statements; it can be an affirmative sentence or a negative sentence. E.g.: John likes squash a lot. Tim has no friends. sentence indicating "no". E.g.: Tim has no friends.

See also: affirmative sentence Synonyms: negative
noun

A part of speech that names a person, place or thing. E.g.: The koala is a marsupial. ("koala", "marsupial")

See also: adjective, adverb, conjunction, pronoun, verb
o
object

A person or thing that is affected by the actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something of a verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis. or involved in the result of an action.

See also: direct object, ditransitive verb, indirect object, intransitive verb, transitive verb
p
particle

A word that is joined to the verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis. in a phrasal verb. E.g.: He is looking after his ageing parents. ("after")

perfect aspect

The aspectA verbal category relating an action to the passage of time. It can express duration or completion. expressing completionA concept, related to the perfect aspect, expressing that an action has finished. E.g.: He’s finished university.. E.g.: He’s finished university.

See also: continuous aspect Synonyms: perfect
period of time

The length of timeA concept which is related to our perception of reality; that part of existence which is measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, etc. between two points of time.

See also: complete period of time, incomplete period of time
point of time

A particular moment in timeA concept which is related to our perception of reality; that part of existence which is measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, etc.. E.g.: She came home at six. ("six") I was born in 1980. ("1980")

progress

An actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something is in progressAn action is in progress when it is happening. E.g.: When I arrived he was surfing. ("he was surfing") when it is happening. E.g.: When I arrived he was surfing. ("he was surfing")

pronoun

A part of speech that refers to or stands instead of a nounA part of speech that names a person, place or thing. E.g.: The koala is a marsupial. ("koala", "marsupial"). E.g.: Who do you think I am? ("you", "I")

See also: adjective, adverb, conjunction, noun, verb
punctuation

The use of special marks that are added to writing to separate phrases and sentences, to indicate that something is an exclamation, a question, etc. E.g.: "Who do you think I am?" he asked. (" ? .)

q
question word

A word that introduces a wh-questionA question that starts with a question word. E.g.: What are you doing? How old are you? . E.g.: What are you doing?

See also: interrogative sentence
r
reference point

A point of timeA particular moment in time. E.g.: She came home at six. ("six") I was born in 1980. ("1980") in relation to which an actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something takes place. E.g.: Geoffrey had already heard about Julie before they met. ("before they met")

s
state

A condition that exists at a particular timeA concept which is related to our perception of reality; that part of existence which is measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, etc.. E.g.: I am sick. This melon weighs two kilos.

See also: action, event
structure

The way in which the parts of a sentence, clauseA group of related words containing a subject and a verb. or expressionA word or group of words used in a particular situation. E.g.: Good morning, at six, on the sofa are arranged. E.g.: make somebody + infinitive in "The teacher made me rewrite the composition."

See also: expression
subject

The person or thing that performs the actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something of a verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis. or that is described by a verb. E.g.: Andy has never been to Brunei. ("Andy")

subordinate clause

A clauseA group of related words containing a subject and a verb. that cannot be a sentence in itself. It is joined with a main clauseA clause that could be a sentence in itself. E.g.: I wouldn’t go there if I were you. ("I wouldn't go there") When I arrived he was surfing. ("he was surfing"). E.g.: I wouldn’t go there if I were you. ("if I were you") When I arrived he was surfing. ("when I arrived")

See also: clause, main clause
t
tense

A grammatical category that is marked by verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis. inflectionA change in or addition to the form of a word that shows a change in the way it is used in sentences. E.g.: He likes what you cooked. ("-s", "-ed"). To express when an eventA general term expressing that somebody or something does something or that something happens. E.g.: An apple fell on Isaac’s head. or actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something happens in timeA concept which is related to our perception of reality; that part of existence which is measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, etc. or when a stateA condition that exists at a particular time. E.g.: I am sick. This melon weighs two kilos. exists, we use tenseA grammatical category that is marked by verb inflection. To express when an event or action happens in time or when a state exists, we use tenses.s.

See also: inflection
time

A concept which is related to our perception of reality; that part of existence which is measured in seconds, minutes, hours, days, weeks, etc.

time marker

A verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis. or auxiliaryA helping verb used with main verbs to express mood, voice and tense. E.g.: I can't stand when I am disturbed. ("can", "am") that marks the reference pointA point of time in relation to which an action takes place. E.g.: Geoffrey had already heard about Julie before they met. ("before they met") of a non-finite form. E.g.: The telephone is known to have been invented by Bell. ("is") He denied being in love with the suspect. ("denied") He must have arrived late. ("must")

time of speaking

A point of timeA particular moment in time. E.g.: She came home at six. ("six") I was born in 1980. ("1980") at which an utteranceSomething that somebody says in a specific context. is made.

transitive verb

A verbA part of speech that expresses an action or a state. E.g.: John seldom plays tennis. that has a direct objectThe directly affected object of the verb; the receiver of the action. E.g.: Who has taken a piece of my bread? ("a piece of my bread"). E.g.: I know you.

See also: direct object, ditransitive verb, indirect object, intransitive verb, object
u
unreal tense

A tenseA grammatical category that is marked by verb inflection. To express when an event or action happens in time or when a state exists, we use tenses. that expresses a hypotheticalUnreal, imagined. situation. E.g.: I wish you were here.

See also: hypothetical Synonyms: unreal
utterance

Something that somebody says in a specific contextThe situation within which something exists or happens, or an utterance is made..

v
verb

A part of speech that expresses an actionA general term expressing that somebody or something does something or a stateA condition that exists at a particular time. E.g.: I am sick. This melon weighs two kilos. . E.g.: John seldom plays tennis.

See also: adjective, conjunction, noun, pronoun
voice

The form of the transitive verbA verb that has a direct object. E.g.: I know you. that shows whether the subjectThe person or thing that performs the action of a verb or that is described by a verb. E.g.: Andy has never been to Brunei. ("Andy") acts (active voiceThe form of the transitive verb that shows whether the subject acts (active voice) or is acted upon (passive voice).) or is acted upon (passive voice).

See also: instrument
w
wh-question

A question that starts with a question wordA word that introduces a wh-question. E.g.: What are you doing?. E.g.: What are you doing? How old are you?

See also: interrogative sentence, yes/no question
y
yes/no question

A question without a question wordA word that introduces a wh-question. E.g.: What are you doing?; one to which the answer is "yes" or "no". E.g.: Are you old enough to enter?

See also: interrogative sentence, wh-question